Words_about_words_An_introduction_to_Eng

Words in Dictionaries

450,000 words (unfortunately, 150,000 less than the second edition), defined in an innovative manner. As Gove, the chief editor of the dictionary, indicated (quoted by Jackson 2002: 65), “the primary objective of precise, sharp defining has been met through development of a new dictionary style based upon completely analytical one-phrase definitions throughout the book… Defining by synonym is carefully avoided”. Though praised for the defining procedures, the American Dictionary met with disapproval due to its stating word meanings in actual use, instead of giving editorial opinion on what these meanings should be. This approach was seen by many as a damaging drawback of the work, since “if people could no longer look to their Webster’s dictionary for an authoritative pronouncement on what the meaning ought to be, how words ought to be pronounced, spelled and used, then they were adrift in a linguistic sea without any chart or compass” (Jackson 2002: 65), a piece of criticism which will probably be taken into account in the preparation of the fourth edition of the dictionary, which began in 2008.

7.3. Dictionaries for English and Romanian

Though interest in English has risen considerably during the past twenty years, after the fall of the communist regime in Romania and the opening of the country towards the international world, a number of English-Romanian dictionaries were published before the 1989 Revolution that have remained landmarks in our lexicography. Even more numerous works of this kind have been printed starting with the late 90’s.

According to Arvinte and Chiţoran (1978), the first such dictionary was Marele dicţionar român – englez, published by Virgil Hălăceanu, in 1900. This was followed, in 1908, by Lolliot’s Dicţionar englez-român and by Wepper’s Dicţionar englez-român, in 1937. Other English-Romanian dictionaries are: Dicţionar englez-român (edited by Sădeanu, Andronescu, Pop and Streinu, in 1958), Leviţchi’s 1960 Dicţionar român-englez (with a revised and enlarged second edition published in 1965 and the latest version in 2005), Dicţionar de buzunar englez-român and Dicţionar de buzunar englez-român, both published by Andronescu in 1961, Bogdan’s

Dicţionar englez-român, printed in 1965, Dicţionar de buzunar englezromân şi român-englez (Bantaş 1969), the Romanian Academy’s Dicţionar englez-român, coordinated by Leviţchi and printed for the first time in 1974, with a second edition in 2004, Dicţionar englez-român. 70.000 de cuvinte by Leviţchi and Bantaş (1997, 2005), Dicţionar englez-român. 35.000 cuvinte, by Bantaş (2005), Dicţionar român-englez, printed in 2000 and reprinted in 2002 and coordinated by Nedelcu, Murar, Bratu and Bantaş, Leviţchi’s Dicţionar român-englez. 60.000 de cuvinte, with a first edition in 1998 and a second, enlarged one, in 2005.

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The latest dictionaries show improvements as compared to those printed up to the 90’s (which does not mean to say that older dictionaries are not still useful tools for today’s linguists, translators, learners and teachers of English). The content of two Romanian – English dictionaries of the same author, Leon Leviţchi, published at a distance in time of almost half a century, may stand proof of this evolution. For illustrative purposes, some elements of the two editions will be discussed comparatively in what follows.

His 1960 Dicţionar român-englez comprises about 30.000 head words, most of them taken from Dicţionarul limbii romîne moderne, published by the Romanian Academy, in 1958, with a small number of words added from other sources. Archaisms, regional variants of words, double forms, diminutives and augmentatives in the monolingual source dictionary were left out of Leviţchi’s work. Instead, very frequently used words were given special attention (a fact reflected in the high number of constructions and examples that accompany them).

Since the meaning or the shadow of meaning of a word is always context-dependent, synonyms and specific collocations should be used with great care. Therefore, these were given special attention in the dictionary. When the need was felt for the clarification of certain aspects of synonymy, various strategies were resorted to - explanations within brackets, abbreviations indicating the domain or the register to which certain synonyms belong or the use of these words in specific word combinations. For example, the Romanian adjective istoric may be translated into English by two ideographic synonyms - “historic” and “historical”. The entry in the dictionary makes the difference between the two clear: “istoric I. adj. (privitor la istorie) historical; (de importanţă istorică) historic”. On the other hand, for the Romanian adjective mic, for example, the dictionary mentions a rather reduced number of collocations in which it follows the noun: copil mic – “little child”, degetul mic – the little finger, efort mic

– “slight effort”, parte mică – “small / inconsiderable part”.

The translation of the Romanian words and phrases by stylistic equivalents seems to have been one of the author’s constant concerns. Thus, on the one hand, where relevant, words and phrases are accompanied by implicit explanations such as F for familiar / familiar, S for savant / scholarly and sl for slang: “acasă adv… a veni de ~ 1. to come from home. 2. fig. F to twig, to tumble; aşa mai vii de ~ F (asta e altă poveste) that’s another pair of breeches”; “gîdilitor adj. tickling, S titillating”; „dovleac

...2. (cap) F pate, nut, sl thinking mug” . On the other hand, the cases when the stylistic value of the word or phrase in Romanian does not correspond to the suggested English equivalent are highlighted by using arrows. For instance, in “galerie s.f. …4. teatru gallery, F→the gods, paradise”, the arrow indicates that, while the Romanian teatru is neutral from a stylistic point of view, the English gods or paradise are marked stylistically as informal. In “bele-arte s.f. pl.←înv. fine arts”, the arrow is used to point at

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the fact that bele-arte is marked as an archaism in Romanian, while, in English, fine arts is not.

As far as grammar is concerned, as indicated in the Preface of the dictionary, both the Romanian and the English words are given in their basic form (nouns, in the Nominative case, adjectives, with their positive degree, verbs, in the short infinitive, etc). The “plural” (pl.) indication is present when the noun in question (either with all or with only some of its meanings) does not have a singular form or is seldom used in the singular – “pomeţi s.m. pl..cheek bones”; “pierdere s.f. … pl. (de vieţi) casualties, losses”. Since nouns in the common gender are very numerous in English, the feminine forms of the Romanian masculine nouns are mentioned as separate entries in the dictionary only when English has such forms – “actriţă s.f. actress”; “baroneasă s.f. baroness”; “ţarină s.f. ist. czarevna”.

The 2005 edition of Leviţchi’s Dicţionar român-englez (whose content was assembled in part by the author’s daughter, on the basis of her father’s manuscripts) contains double the number of entries in the initial work – as indicated in the Preface, those in the 1998 edition of the dictionary alongside other words and phrases selected from Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române (1998). Unlike in the 1960 edition, Romanian poetic and technical terms, archaisms, regional variants of words, diminutives and augmentatives were given more prominence this time. Words such as insulă (poetic) – “isle”, cărunt (poetic) – “hoary-headed, grizzled”; albaspină (in botany) – “hawthorn, hedgethorn”, barotermograf (in physics) – “barothermograph”, cumen (in chemistry) – “cumene”, labiovelar (in phonetics) – “labiovelar”; a meremetisi (archaic) – “to repair, to restore”, pisar (archaic) – “clerk, secretary”, schingi (archaic) – “torturing, torture”, zarif (archaic) – “beautiful, tremendous”; ahotnic (regional use) – “passionate of, anxious, eager to do something”, leşuit (regional use) – “weakened, feeble, worn out”, mânăştergură (regional use)

– “towel”, a meleşui (regional use) – “to stir”; grăuncior (diminutive of “grăunte”) – small grain, granule, tiny particle, căscioară (diminutive of “casă”) – “little house”, fetişoară (diminutive of “girl”) – “little girl”, lăboaie (diminutive of “labă”) – “big hand”, buboi (augmentative of “bubă”) – “boil, furuncle” have been introduced in the latest edition.

Words in the common word stock of Romanian are given even more detailed attention here. The example below illustrates how the material in the 2005 dictionary has enriched as compared to the information offered in the 1960 edition:

	1960				2005
amintire s.f. 1. (memorie) memory. 2.			amintire	sf	1	remembering;
(aducere	aminte)	memory,	reminding, mentioning etc. v. aminti;
remembrance, recollection. 3. (suvenir)			mention,	insinuation;		recollection;
keepsake, token, souvenir. b) ca ~ for a			rememebrance;		memory	2 (memorie)

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keepsake; în ~a (cu gen.) in memory /	←rar memory 3 pl –i remembrance,
commemoration of …	recollection, memory; reminiscence 4 pl
	–i (suvenir dintr-o călătorie etc) token
	(of remembrance); souvenir; keepsake 5
	pl –i (menţiune) ←rar mention 6 pl –i
	(memorii) memoirs		a)	~i	din
	copilărie childhood memories /
	recollections,	reminiscences			of
	childhood; ~i triste sad memories b)
	ca ~ (din partea + gen) for a keepsake
	(from); de binecuvântată ~ of blessed
	memory; de tristă ~ of sad memory; în
	~ea +gen:	a) in	memory		/
	remembrance of; in commemoration of;
	(d. un monument etc.) to the memory of
	b) (unei călătorii etc) as a souvenir / a
	memento of c) a păstra ~a cuiva to
	cherish smb’s memory, to keep smb’s
	memory green; a reînvia ~ea + gen to
	refresh one’s	memory	of	/ about;
	trăieşte din ~i he lives on his
	memories

The author’s initial concern with the differences between Romanian and English in terms of synonymy, collocations and stylistic matters increased, so that the explanations in these areas are more elaborate in the newer version of the work under scrutiny. Thus, the details in the entry istoric have been extended to: “istoric I –ă, -i, -e adj 1 (privitor la istorie) historical; (d. timpurile când s-au înregistrat fapte istorice) historic 2 (de importanţă istorică) historic”. Also, the equivalents for the adjective mic, whose presence in the 1960 edition I have highlighted above, are much more numerous in the 2005 variant of the dictionary, and so are the collocations in which they occur. Among these collocations there are: apă mică – “shallow water”, bere mică – “small beer”, cadou mic – “small present”, cameră mică – “small / little room”, casă mică – “small / little house”, distanţă mică – “short distance”, format mic – “small format/size”, literă mică – “small letter”, maşină de scris mică – “portable typewriter”, noapte mică – “short night”, soacră mică – “the bride’s/wife’s mother”, suflet mic - „base/mean/selfish/ungenerous soul/spirit”, etc.

As far as stylistic aspects are concerned, in suggesting the English equivalents for the Romanian words and phrases, the indications F for familiar / familiar, S for savant / scholarly, scientific, and sl for slang have been preserved. However, a number of other indications are added to these in the more recent dictionary. Some are the following: euf for euphemism / euphemism, glum for glumeţ / jocular, ir for ironic / ironical (deştept - ir wise man, a wise man of Gotham, sapient), lb cop for limbajul copiilor / the language of children (mamă – lb cop mum(my), mom(my), momma), livr

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for livresc / bookish and P for popular / folk (maţ (furtun) – ←P flexible tube). The arrow symbols ← and → have been taken over to the newer edition - the former, to indicate that the Romanian equivalent does not correspond to the stylistic indication in English, the latter, to show that the English word or phrase does not have the same stylistic value as the one in Romanian. An arrow pointing down, ↓, was added to the list of symbols in the 2005 edition, for “especially” (agonale - ↓ la vechii greci agons, libertate - ↓ ca lipsă de constrângere freedom, ↓ în sens abstract liberty, răzbuna - ↓ pe cineva to revenge).

Additions were made to the 2005 edition of Leviţchi’s dictionary from a grammatical point of view, too. Nouns in Romanian are included both with their singular and with their plural form (wherever the latter exists) and, like in the older edition, the fact that some nouns have forms for the plural only and different forms for the two genders has been highlighted. If, in the first edition, it is only the masculine singular form of adjectives that is mentioned, in the 2005 dictionary, all possible forms of adjectives are indicated (as the case may be): masculine and feminine singular, masculine and feminine plural. In the case of verbs, besides the bare infinitive, the first person singular forms for the present, “perfect simplu” (approximately simple past in English) and past participle indicative are specified.

Hard copies apart, the Internet has lately offered the possibility of working with online general dictionaries that are available on sites such as www.dictionare.com, www.dictionarromanenglez.ro, www.engleza- online.ro/dictionar-roman-englez.php, etc. Unfortunately, many of these need obvious improvement in terms of both the number of words and phrases included and the way the existent ones are defined and described.

The number of specialized dictionaries for English and Romanian, in the field of the science of linguistics, has remained much more reduced so far, by comparison with the quite numerous general bilingual dictionaries, some of which have been enumerated above. Among those that cover specific areas of linguistics, there are the following: Dicţionar de neologisme ale limbii engleze (Volceanov 1998), a collection of about 6000 words and phrases that, as the author indicates, entered English during the last two decades of the twentieth century (the entries are in English, while the explanations are given in Romanian); Dicţionar de argou, eufemisme şi expresii familiare englez-român (Balaban 1999), comprising slang selected from various regional varieties of English, for which Romanian equivalents are provided, special attention being paid to multiple meanings, synonyms, specific usages and examples that clarify certain senses; and a number of phraseological dictionaries such as Dicţionar Englez – Român, Român –

Englez frazeologic (Nicolescu et al. 2005), Dicţionare Englez – Român de

exprsii şi locuţiuni (Hulban 2007), The Great English – Romanian Dictionary of Idioms (Săileanu, Poenaru 2007), Dicţionar de colocaţii

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Words about Words

nominale englez-român (Pârlog, Teleagă 1999), Dicţionar englez-român de colocaţii verbale (Pârlog, Teleagă 2000).

All these dictionaries are useful both for learners of English and for specialists and translators. Among them, the dictionaries of collocations seem to represent a particularly helpful category of linguistic tools.

In learning a foreign language, usually, more attention is paid to grammar and basic vocabulary, than to combinations of words (idioms and phrasal verbs being, sometimes, exceptions from this approach). As stated in the argument to Dicţionar englez-român de colocaţii verbale (Pârlog, Teleagă 2000), in order to use a foreign language correctly (whether for everyday or professional communication or in the process of translation), it is vital to know whether two or more words can be combined so that the lexical units thus obtained should sound natural. Collocability is a matter of language specificity rather than one of certain universal semantic restrictions and, as such, the correct employment of collocations is part of the native speaker’s linguistic competence. This is why even those proficient in a foreign language sometimes use inappropriate collocations. The usefulness of bilingual dictionaries of collocations is, therefore, unquestionable.

The two works cited last offer information that shed light on differences between English and Romanian that a non-native speaker of English might disregard. Thus, as far as nominal collocations are concerned, for example, in many cases in Romanian, the latter noun is in the genitive case and the (pseudo)quantifier is accompanied by an adjective meant to render the meaning of the former as exactly as possible (a spurt of

speed – o creşetere bruscă a vitezei; a switch in opinion – o schimbare bruscă a opiniei); while, in English, the former noun is the quantifier, in Romanian, it is the latter noun that serves this function (lashings of drinks

– băutură berechet; tons / a power of money – bani cu carul / lopata); sometimes, the equivalent of an English nominal collocation is a “noun + adjective / participle” structure, in which the latter element plays the role of the Engish (pseudo)quantifier (the ghost of a smile – un zâmbet vag / un zâmbet abia schiţat); other times, a single Romanian noun corresponds to a collocation in English (a piece of information – o informaţie) or the English collocation may be rendered into Romanian only by paraphrasing

(never does a scrap / a stitch / a stroke of work – nu munceşte / nu face /

nu lucrează nimic; nu pune mâna pe nimic).

Verbal collocations may pose difficulties to non-native users of English, too. Some of these difficulties are highlighted in the preface to

Dicţionar englez-român de colocaţii verbale (Pârlog, Teleagă 2000). For example, in English, certain nouns combine with the verb to make and others with the verb to do, while, in Romanian, only one verb is used – a face. Thus, we say to make a journey (a face o călătorie), to make progress

(a face progrese), a face patul (to make the bed), but to do the shopping (a face cumpărături), to do one’s homework (a-şi face temele) and to do one’s

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duty (a-şi face datoria). There are also situations when English uses only one verb and Romanian uses several. For instance, the following collocations with the verb to brush are translated using different verbs in Romanian: to brush one’s clothes – a-şi peria hainele, to brush one’s nails

– a-şi freca unghiile, to brush one’s teeth – a se spăla pe dinţi. Sometimes, the entire English collocation is translated by a single verb in Romanian – to take a hit – a lovi, to give odds – a avantaja – or it is rendered into Romanian by paraphrase – to split an infinitive – a intercala un adverb între elememtele infinitivului. Also, the verb, the noun or the adverb in the English collocation finds itself an equivalent in a Romanian phrase – to file

an interrogatory – a pune la dosar un interogatoriu, to run a relay – a

alerga în proba de ştafetă, to spread thinly – a întinde un strat subţire, etc.

Specialized bilingual dictionaries for English and Romanian, outside the area of linguistics as a science, have also been printed in quite large numbers during the last decade. Examples of such dictionaries include:

Dicţionar englez-român pentru personalul medical (Brudaşcu 2008), Dicţionar de chimie şi industrie chimică englez-român (Dobre 2009), Dicţionar economic englez-român şi român-englez (Niculescu 2009), Dicţionar juridic englez-român şi român-englez (Lister, Veth 2010), etc.

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